During the modern era, the population of Rome grew steadily, rising from just over 50,000 inhabitants at the beginning of the 1500s to more than 100,000 by the early 1600s. This demographic increase was mainly fueled by immigration: the Rome of the Popes was often described as a “city of immigrants,” as it continuously attracted new residents not only from within the Papal States but also from other Italian regions, across Europe, and even from overseas.

The main draw was the papal court and the cardinal curia. Many Italian aristocrats, particularly from central and northern regions such as Emilia, Romagna, and the Marche, moved to Rome in hopes of advancing their careers and rising to the highest ranks of the Church and state administration. Another stream of immigration consisted of sculptors, painters, and architects, attracted by both public and private patronage. Just think of Michelangelo from Tuscany and Raphael from Urbino, who settled in Rome in the early 1500s at the invitation of Pope Julius II.

The city’s many libraries also drew scholars and intellectuals, both Italian and European. Among the largest foreign communities were the French and Spanish, many of whom served as diplomats at their embassies. Germans, Poles, and even some English Catholics, who had fled religious persecution at home, also resided in Rome. For religious reasons, Queen Christina of Sweden, after her conversion to Catholicism in 1655, established her residence in the city as well.

The presence of colleges attracted numerous foreign students. The Urban College, founded in 1627, welcomed Indian and African students, training them as missionaries to return to their native lands. Another important factor drawing people to Rome was the guarantee of welfare and food security. Several hospitals and hospices were available, and the papal government ensured a constant supply of grain and meat into the city by regulating exports and controlling prices.

The diverse origins of the population turned Rome into a true “linguistic Babel.” The papal court wrote and spoke in Latin and, at times, in refined Tuscan, while the common people used Romanesco dialect, everyday Tuscan, or other regional dialects. Moreover, since most of the newcomers were men, the city’s population remained predominantly male.